Historical Encyclopedia
The history of the state system in Sudan is a process of formation, transformation, and crisis of various political regimes and governance structures. This process spans over a century, beginning with the late period of Ottoman rule and ending with modern political transformations. Sudan's power system has undergone numerous changes, affecting the country's domestic and foreign policy. Let us examine the key stages of the evolution of the state system in Sudan, starting from the colonial era to the current political situation.
By the late 19th century, Sudan was under joint control of Egypt and Great Britain, significantly influencing its state system. In 1821, Egypt officially took control of Sudan, marking the beginning of a long period of Egyptian rule that lasted until the end of the 19th century. Egyptian rule, supported by Great Britain, laid the foundation for the development of a central bureaucracy and administrative apparatus in Sudan.
The Sudanese question became internationally significant in the 1880s when Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi (the savior) and led a rebellion against Egyptian and British authority. The Mahdist victory in 1885 and the establishment of the Mahdist state marked an important moment in Sudan’s history. The Mahdist government created a unique political system based on religious principles of Islam and continued to fight against the British and Egyptians until 1898. With the fall of the Mahdist state and the arrival of the British-Egyptian administration, Sudan became part of the British colonial empire once again.
From 1899, Sudan was controlled by Great Britain and Egypt under the so-called "Anglo-Egyptian" administration. Although Sudan remained formally independent, real power was in the hands of the British. The political structure was built around the centralization of power and a strong colonial apparatus focused on exploiting the country’s resources.
The administrative system in Sudan during this period was centralized and authoritarian, with limited rights for the local population. Institutions and laws were concentrated in the hands of the colonial authorities, while local sultans and chiefs primarily performed ceremonial functions. This created a foundation for political and social tensions in the country, which later led to future revolutions.
Political reforms in Sudanese society began to take place in the 1940s when the first parties, such as the National Unionist Party (NUP) and the Sudanese Socialist Union Party, were formed. However, the struggle for independence continued until 1955, when, under pressure from both local political movements and the international community, Sudan became an independent state in 1956.
After gaining independence in 1956, Sudan became a republic with a democratic structure. The Constitution adopted in 1956 was based on principles of parliamentary democracy and established a system of multi-party parliamentarism. The early years of independence were marked by political instability, various conflicts among different ethnic and religious groups, and struggles for power among political parties.
Sudan experienced several coups in the first half of the 20th century. The first coup occurred in 1959 when a group of officers overthrew the democratically elected government, leading to the establishment of a military regime. In 1964, protests and a revolution led to the overthrow of the military government and a return to democratic governance.
However, political stability was never fully established. In 1969, another coup occurred when General Jafaar Nimeiry came to power and established an authoritarian regime. His rule became a turning point in the evolution of the state system in Sudan. He attempted to reform the country with a focus on socialist and Islamic ideas.
Jafaar Nimeiry, who came to power in 1969 after a coup, became a significant figure in Sudan's history. His rule lasted until 1985 and was an important phase in the evolution of the country’s state system. Nimeiry established a repressive regime, relying on the military and police to suppress opposition. Foreign policy was oriented towards socialist ideas, while domestic policy included economic reforms aimed at the nationalization of resources and the establishment of a planned economy.
However, despite political and economic reforms, Nimeiry faced growing discontent among the population, especially among southern residents, due to unfulfilled promises regarding autonomy and civil rights. Southern Sudan continued to struggle for autonomy, leading to violent military conflicts known as the Second Sudanese Civil War.
In 1985, mass protests erupted in the country, leading to Nimeiry's overthrow and the establishment of a transitional government. These events marked the beginning of a new political era in Sudan.
After the overthrow of Nimeiry in 1985, Sudan experienced a period of political instability that lasted until 1989, when Colonel Omar al-Bashir came to power through a coup. Al-Bashir established a military dictatorship and soon declared Sudan an Islamic Republic, implementing radical political and social reforms. During his rule, Sudan experienced a severe internal conflict, which lasted until 2005 and included the Second Civil War between the north and the south of the country.
In 2011, following the signing of a peace agreement in 2005 and a subsequent referendum, South Sudan became an independent state, while Sudan lost a significant part of its territory and resources, including oil fields. This event was a critical moment in the country's history and had a profound impact on the future state structure of Sudan.
After the division of the country in 2011, Sudan faced new political and economic challenges. The political system continued to be authoritarian, and despite several attempts at reform, military and civilian authorities continued to struggle for power. In 2019, after widespread protests and pressure from the population, President Omar al-Bashir was overthrown, marking the beginning of a transitional period in the country.
Sudan transitioned to a joint governance system that included both military and civilian representatives. In 2021, a military coup occurred, when the army again took control of the government, leading to renewed political instability.
The modern state system in Sudan continues to evolve, facing challenges in restoring democratic institutions, improving the economic situation, and ensuring peace in regions affected by prolonged internal conflicts. The political situation remains unstable, but civil society and the international community continue to support efforts to reform and stabilize the country.
The evolution of the state system in Sudan is a story of power struggles, political instability, and the search for balance among various social and ethnic groups. From the colonial era to modern political transformations, Sudan has undergone numerous changes that have shaped its contemporary political structure. Despite the challenges, the country continues to move towards reform and development, with hope for a sustainable future and the restoration of democratic values.