Historical Encyclopedia
The evolution of the state system in Syria is an important and multifaceted process that encompasses both ancient traditions and modern political changes. Since the establishment of the first state formations in the territory of Syria and up to the present day, the country has undergone numerous political transformations. From ancient civilization and the Arab caliphate to the current difficulties associated with conflicts and reforms, each stage of development has been defined by both internal circumstances and external influences.
The territory of present-day Syria was home to some of the oldest states in human history. These lands were part of great civilizations such as Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Phoenicia. Important states also arose in these regions during antiquity, such as the kingdoms of Ugarit, Armenia, and Palestine. However, the greatest influence on the formation of the political system in Syria came from the Arab conquests in the 7th century, when the territory of Syria became part of the Arab caliphate.
After the Arab conquests, Syria became part of various Islamic empires, including the Umayyads, Abbasids, and Ottomans. The Syrian lands became important administrative and cultural centers within these empires, and the political system was based on the principles of Islam and feudal hierarchy. These elements played a crucial role in the formation of the later state system in Syria.
Following the conquest by the Ottoman Empire in 1516, Syria became part of this great state and remained under Ottoman rule until 1918. The Ottoman Empire established a complex administrative system, where the Syrian lands were governed from the center in Constantinople. However, local administrators, such as pashas, held significant autonomy. As a result, Syria retained many local characteristics in its political and social life, including the Muslim legal system and traditions that significantly influenced the future power structure.
Throughout the Ottoman period, Syria experienced active cultural development, as well as trade and economic growth. However, despite this development, the political structure remained centralized, with predominant power over the regions. This system was based on Ottoman governance principles, which affected the organization of power in later periods of Syria's history.
After World War I, Syria came under the control of France, which received a mandate to govern the territory according to the decisions of the League of Nations. The French mandate became a turning point in Syria's history, as many Syrians sought independence and the formation of a sovereign state. During French rule, several forms of administrative governance were established, but real power remained in the hands of the French colonial authorities.
The struggle for independence led to a series of uprisings, including the famous Damascus uprising in 1925, and in the face of this resistance, France was forced to gradually concede. In 1946, Syria gained full independence, and the first republic was formed, which immediately faced numerous internal and external challenges, such as political instability and frequent coups.
After gaining independence in 1946, Syria underwent several decades of political instability, characterized by frequent coups and changes of government. During this period, a series of provisional governments existed, and the country continued to suffer from political crises. In 1958, Syria united with Egypt into an Arab republic, but this union was short-lived, and in 1961, Syria returned to independence.
Amid political instability, a coup occurred in 1963, and power in Syria fell into the hands of the Ba'ath Party, which came to power with the support of the military. Since that time, Syria entered a period of authoritarian rule that lasted for decades. The Ba'ath Party, based on socialist and Arab nationalist ideology, established strict control over the political system, and the regime, with elements of military rule, persisted until the end of the 20th century.
After the coup in 1970, Hafez al-Assad, who became the president of Syria, significantly strengthened the power of the Ba'ath Party and created a totalitarian system that largely remains in the country to this day. During his rule, a centralized power was established, based on the personal authority of the president and full control over the political and military elites. Under Hafez al-Assad's guidance, Syria adopted the constitution of 1973, which established the president as the main figure in the state apparatus.
Hafez al-Assad's rule was also characterized by harsh repression of opposition, including military actions against insurgents, such as in Hama in 1982. Despite these repressions, his rule ensured stability in the country, as well as the establishment of close ties with the Soviet Union and other Arab countries. The economy also underwent certain changes, such as the introduction of some elements of a market economy, despite the official socialist ideology.
After the death of Hafez al-Assad in 2000, power passed to his son Bashar al-Assad. Bashar was perceived as a modernizer who could reform the system and introduce more open political processes. However, his attempts at reform faced numerous obstacles, including resistance from conservative elements in society and within government structures.
Under Bashar al-Assad's leadership, Syria entered a new phase marked by deteriorating relations with the West, increased internal repression, and ultimately a civil war that began in 2011. The conflict, triggered by protests during the "Arab Spring," led to the destruction of the state and a prolonged humanitarian crisis.
The civil war in Syria, which began in 2011, radically changed the political situation in the country. In the context of armed conflict, Syria was divided into several territories controlled by various groups, and external forces such as Russia, the USA, Turkey, and Iran actively intervened in the country. In response to these challenges, Bashar al-Assad's government used both military and diplomatic methods to restore control over the state.
After several years of war, by 2020, the Syrian government had regained control over most of the country; however, the war left deep scars on the social-political structure, economy, and demographics of Syria. Many regions remain in the hands of opposition forces, which maintains instability and threatens the political future of the country.
The evolution of the state system in Syria is a multifaceted process that encompasses both the ancient roots of civilization and modern issues related to conflicts and internal reforms. Since the Arab conquests, through the Ottoman rule, the French mandate, independence, and decades of authoritarian rule, Syria has always been at the forefront of political changes in the Middle East. However, war and international interventions have significantly altered the trajectory of the country's development, and Syria's future depends on how the issue of restoring political stability and peace in the region will be addressed.